History of Life on Earth

Chapter 25 History of Life on Earth synthetic thin family lineg of Organic Compounds on Early Earth * The Earth in all probability formed about 4. 6 jillion years ago, and was bombarded with rocks and other fabric until about 3. 9 billion years ago. * The Earth then cooled, allowing for the ecesis of oceans. Scientists hypothesize the general atmo bowl, or at least some regions, were raw(a)ly reducing environments, meaning that they added electrons to compounds. * energizing energy provided by lightening or UV radiation may strike been able to frame organic compounds and amino acids, as demonstrated by a number of modern experiments.Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules * Experiments get to been done in which amino acid solutions in hot sand have formed polymers, exactly not true proteins. These polymers may have functioned as basic catalysts of some kind, however. Protobionts * Cells have genetic material in the form of DNA and RNA, which they atomic number 18 besides ope n of replicating. Nothing give care this has been generated spontaneously in lab experiments. * However, early structures calledprotobiontshave had some of the capabilities associated with life.Experiments have spontaneously create protobionts, which be simple sphere of membrane that peck perform simple metabolic and reproductive functions. * Note phospholipids spontaneously form a bilayer, like the membrane that surrounds cells, so that part of the puzzle is easy to solve. Self-Replicating RNA and the Dawn of Natural option * Simple RNA structures calledribozymescan carry out basic chemical reactions and are even capable of replicating themselves. * As ribozymes replicated themselves (with errors) protobionts could have developed internal collections of slightly several(predicate) enzymes that formed a rudimentary metabolic system.The RNA in these early cells may have served as a template for the eventual installation of a DNA genome, which would have reduced the number of errors made during replication. The Fossil Record * The fossil disposition gives a glimpse of life on Earth during different time periods and provides clues for evolutionary research. However, the fossil get in withal has significant gaps, solely some are being filled by new disc overies. How Rocks and Fossils are Dated * Fossils appear in unmarried sediment layers, which tell us the order that they were formed in but not an actual age in years.Scientists useradiometric dateto determine absolute ages. * Radiometric dating is based on the fact that some radioactive elements have predictableone-half-lives, or periods in which half of the substance will decay. If you know how much of a certain radioactive element an existence has when it died, much(prenominal) as carbon-14, you can determine its age by measuring the amount of carbon-14 remaining today. * Older fossils are harder to date, but you can at least guess based on the age of fossils in the skirt layers. The Origin of N ew Groups of Organisms The presence of certain bones, different kinds of teeth and other characteristics can benefactor researchers check inferences about what an animal may been like while it was alive. Changes between similar fossils of different time periods also show the pace of evolutionary change. The First Single-Celled Organisms * Scientists have found fossilizedstromolitesthat are notion to have lived 3. 5 billion years ago the earliest organisms discovered to date. Stromolites are mounds of prokaryotes that bind to their kin and other inorganic material. Photosynthesis and the Oxygen Revolution 2. 7 billion years ago, there were probably cynobacteria in the ocean that usedphotosynthesisfor energy and released oxygen in the process.The oxygen that these bacteria released would have eventually begun reacting with iron, and last escaped into the atmosphere as a gas. * This buildup of oxygen actually killed many prokaryotes, and provided a strong selective force in favor of cells that could use oxygen in their metabolism. The cells that survived the oxygen revolution are probably the ancestors of todaysaerobicorganisms. The First Eukaryotes The earliest eukaryotes are thought to have lived around 2. 1 billion years ago. These early eukaryotes probably formed throughendosymbiosis, in which they engulfed small, living, cells and developed a mutualistic ( mutually beneficial) birth with them. * Themitochondria, for example, may have been formed in this way. The mitochondria has a double membrane, maintains and replicates its own DNA and reproduce independently of the rest of the cell. The Origin of multicellularity * As cells became more complex, they also came to exhibit greater diversity.Multicellular structures also began to form. The Earliest Multicellular Eukaryotes The earliest multicellular eukaryotes probably lived around 1. 5 billion years ago. Earth had a a couple of(prenominal) ice ages between 750-580 meg years ago. Eukaryote diversity increase after the end of this period. The Welsh Explosion * Scientists have found a whole bunch of animal fossils from the Cambrian Period (535-525 million years ago). While previous animals seem to have mostly been herbivores or filter-feeders, the animals that arose during theCambrian Explosionhad claws and armor. late(a) evidence, however, suggests that some of these animals were living before the Cambrian Period, so maybe explosion isnt the best term.The village of Land * Prokaryotes lived on land as long as 1 billion years ago, but larger organisms wouldnt get there until around cholecalciferol million years ago. Plants, which often had mutually beneficial relationships with fungi, colonized the land and began developing specialized structures suited to life out of water. Arthropods, such as insects, also spread on to the land. Continental Drift Heres something weird the sheers apparent movement. They might move really slowly, when youre talking about millions of years, tho se tiny movements add up. This process, calledcontinental drift, involves the movement of the Earths plates. The collision of two plates can form mountain ranges, cause earthquakes, and so forth. Consequences of Continental Drift * expert about 250 million years ago, most of the Earths land was concentrated into once push-down storeive continent calledPangaea. As the plates moved, climates changed (sometimes dramatically) and many species went extinct.The separation of plates, in contrast, promotesallopatric speciation. * These changes in the Earths geography help explain similarities between distant organisms, for example. Mass Extinctions * Species go extinct all the time, but there are also major events that are particularly important in evolutionary history mass extinctions. The king-sized Five Mass Extinction Events * Here are a few stats involving fives for you * Over the past 500 million years * Weve had 5 mass extinctions Each of which caused the deaths of more than 50% of the worlds species * In thePermian mass extinction, massive volcanic activity spewed lava over 1. 6 million square kilometers and released a ample amount of carbon dioxide, which may have warmed the planet and indirectly caused the deaths of many aquatic organisms. * In theCretaceous mass extinction, which killed many of the dinosaurs, an asteroid probably struck the Earth. This would have created a huge swarm of debris that could block the sun and alter the planets climate rather significantly.Such an impact may have created the Chicxulub crater in Mexico. Is a Sixth Mass Extinction Under Way? * mankind havent killed as many species as the other mass extinctions did, but were cleansing them between 100-1,000 times faster than they normally die. And that could be a big problem. Consequences of Mass Extinctions * It by and large takes a few million years for the number of species on the Earth to rebound after a mass extinction. These events also generally wipe out species with out regard to their fitness or environmental adaptations.Adaptive Radiations * The diversity of organisms has increased in the last 250 million years, as populations adapt to new environmental conditions and undergo speciation. These accommodative radiationsgenerally occur on a large scale after mass extinctions, which leave many bionomic niches open. Worldwide Adaptive Radiations * After the dinosaurs went extinct around 65. 5 million years ago, mammals underwent significant adaptive radiation, filling the roles that now-extinct species had occupied in individual ecosystems. Regional Adaptive Radiations Hawaii, which is far from any other continent, is a particularly stark example of adaptive radiation. There are hundreds of species on Hawaii that dont exist anywhere else in the world. Evolutionary Effects of Developmental Genes * Developmental patterns have also changed over time.* Changes in Rate and Timing * One common developmental change isheterochrony, in which different par t of the body grow at different rates or at different times. Some organisms can undergophetomorphosis, in which the adult form of the organism retains traits that previously had been confined to children. Basically, if human adults started looking like babies, we would have a phetomorphosis situation on our hands. Changes in Spatial Pattern * Changes in thehomeotic genes, which control how and where individual body structures develop, could have led to the development of vertebrates and other organisms. The Evolution of Development * There are a few different ways that mutations can significantly influence body structure. Changes in Genes * Many organisms have similar genes that are nevertheless different enough to produce very different outcomes.By identifying and testing from each one difference between the two genes, researchers can pinpoint the precise changes that alter the genes function. Changes in Gene Regulation * Sometimes changes in gene regulation, and thus gene express ion, can alter an organisms body structure. These changes can be localized to specific types of cells, and thus are less potentially dangerous than changes to the genome itself. Evolutionary Novelties * Evolution doesnt proceed with a final goal in mind, and just involves slight changes from one generation to the next. Over time, simpler structures can become more complex and useful.Structures can also develop into something that serves a totally different purpose than their original function. Evolutionary Trends * The problem with looking at evolutionary trends (such as horses are getting bigger), youre examining a linear succession of different horse ancestors but rather a branched tree of ancestors that diverged in all different directions. * However, natural plectrum also works on entire species. If speciation is the birth of a species and extinction is its death, natural selection could guide the development of these successive generations and thus create a trend.